What Are Emotions?
Emotions are complex psychological and physiological responses to events that we perceive as personally significant.
Components of Emotion
1. Subjective experience: The feeling itself (fear, joy, anger)
2. Physiological response: Body changes (heart rate, sweating)
3. Behavioral expression: Outward signs (facial expressions, posture)
4. Cognitive appraisal: How we interpret the situation
All four components interact-changing one can change the others.
Emotion vs Mood vs Affect
| | Duration | Intensity | Cause |
|---|---|---|---|
| Emotion | Seconds to minutes | High | Specific trigger |
| Mood | Hours to days | Lower | Often unclear |
| Affect | Ongoing | Varies | General term for feeling states |
Moods can influence which emotions we experience-a negative mood makes us more likely to react with anger or sadness.
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Major Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory (1880s)
Claim: We feel emotions BECAUSE of our body's response.
The body reacts first, then the brain interprets the reaction as an emotion.
Evidence for: Feedback from body does influence emotions (smiling can improve mood).
Problems: Different emotions have similar physiological responses. People with spinal cord injuries still experience emotions.
Cannon-Bard Theory (1920s)
Claim: Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur SIMULTANEOUSLY.
The thalamus sends signals to both cortex (experience) and body (arousal) at the same time.
Advantage: Explains why emotions feel immediate.
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory (1960s)
Claim: Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label.
We experience arousal, then interpret it based on context.
Implication: Same arousal can become different emotions depending on how we interpret it.
Appraisal Theories
Modern consensus: Emotions depend on how we EVALUATE events.
Key appraisals:
- Is this relevant to my goals?
- Is it good or bad for me?
- Can I cope with it?
- Who or what caused it?
Same event can produce different emotions based on appraisal.
Constructionist Approach
Recent development: Emotions are not discrete natural categories but constructed from more basic ingredients.
The brain uses core affect (pleasant/unpleasant, activated/deactivated) plus context and concepts to construct emotional experiences.
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Basic Emotions
Universal Emotions
Paul Ekman proposed six universal basic emotions with distinct facial expressions:
1. Happiness
2. Sadness
3. Fear
4. Anger
5. Surprise
6. Disgust
These expressions are recognized across cultures, suggesting some biological basis.
Later additions: contempt, possibly pride and shame.
Complex Emotions
More complex emotions are built from basic ones and depend more on culture and learning:
- Jealousy, envy
- Guilt, shame, embarrassment
- Love, compassion
- Awe, admiration
- Nostalgia
Functions of Emotions
Emotions are not irrational disruptions-they serve important purposes:
Fear: Prepares for threats (fight-or-flight response).
Anger: Mobilizes resources to overcome obstacles, signals boundaries.
Sadness: Signals need for support, promotes reflection.
Disgust: Protects against contamination and disease.
Happiness: Signals safety, broadens attention, builds resources.
Emotions guide behavior and help us navigate the social world.
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The Physiology of Emotion
The Limbic System
Key brain regions involved in emotion:
Amygdala:
- Crucial for fear learning and threat detection
- Processes emotional significance of stimuli
- Damage impairs fear conditioning and recognition of fear in faces
Prefrontal cortex:
- Regulates emotional responses
- Involved in emotional decision-making
- Damage can produce poor judgment and impulsivity
Insula:
- Processes body sensations
- Involved in disgust and interoception (awareness of internal states)
Anterior cingulate cortex:
- Monitors conflicts
- Involved in emotional pain
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic (fight-or-flight):
- Increases heart rate, dilates pupils
- Diverts blood to muscles
- Activates during fear, anger
Parasympathetic (rest-and-digest):
- Decreases heart rate
- Promotes relaxation
- Activates during calm, contentment
Emotional states involve distinctive patterns of autonomic activation-though overlap exists.
Hormones
Cortisol: Stress hormone, prolonged elevation has negative health effects.
Adrenaline (epinephrine): Acute arousal, fight-or-flight.
Oxytocin: Social bonding, trust (though effects are more complex than pop science suggests).
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Emotional Regulation
The ability to influence which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we experience and express them.
Strategies
### Situation Selection
Choosing to enter or avoid situations based on likely emotional impact.
Effectiveness: Can be useful but may become avoidance that maintains anxiety.
### Situation Modification
Changing aspects of a situation to alter its emotional impact.
### Attention Deployment
Directing attention toward or away from emotional aspects.
Distraction: Focusing on something else.
Concentration: Focusing on non-emotional aspects.
Rumination: Repeatedly focusing on negative feelings-tends to prolong and intensify them.
### Cognitive Reappraisal
Changing how you think about a situation.
Reappraisal is generally effective and healthy-associated with better well-being.
### Expressive Suppression
Inhibiting outward signs of emotion.
Suppression is less effective than reappraisal-it reduces expression but not experience, and has cognitive costs.
What Works Best?
Flexible use of strategies depending on context is ideal.
Reappraisal tends to be healthier than suppression.
Early intervention (before emotion peaks) is more effective than late.
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Emotional Intelligence
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.
Four Components (Mayer & Salovey)
1. Perceiving emotions: Recognizing emotions in faces, voices, art
2. Using emotions: Harnessing emotions to facilitate thinking
3. Understanding emotions: Knowing how emotions evolve and combine
4. Managing emotions: Regulating one's own and others' emotions
Is EI Real and Useful?
EI predicts some outcomes beyond general intelligence-especially in interpersonal domains.
However, EI is often oversold in popular media.
Cautions:
- Many commercial EI tests have weak validity
- EI can be used manipulatively
- May overlap substantially with personality traits
Developing EI
EI can be improved through training and practice.
Key areas:
- Improving emotion recognition
- Learning about emotion processes
- Practicing reappraisal
- Developing empathy
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Emotions Across Cultures
Universals
Basic facial expressions of emotion are recognized across cultures.
All cultures have concepts of happiness, sadness, fear, anger.
Cultural Differences
Display rules: Cultures differ in when and how much emotion should be expressed.
Emotion concepts: Some emotions exist in one culture but not others.
Language shapes emotional experience-having a word for an emotion may make it easier to recognize and experience.
Values: Cultures differ in which emotions are valued.
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Emotions and Health
Positive Emotions
Positive emotions broaden attention and build resources-this is Barbara Fredrickson's "broaden-and-build" theory.
Positive emotions are associated with better health outcomes-though causation is complex.
Negative Emotions
Chronic negative emotions, especially hostility and depression, are risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
Emotional suppression is associated with poorer health outcomes than expression or reappraisal.
Emotional Expression
Expressing emotions through writing can have health benefits-Pennebaker's expressive writing paradigm.
However, venting anger often increases rather than decreases anger.
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See also: [Psychology](/psychology) for cognitive aspects, [Clinical Psychology](/clinical-psychology) for emotional disorders, [Stress](/stress) for stress management, [Mental Health](/mentalhealth) for coping strategies